What does model language look like? To model language for a child who is deaf or hard of hearing, an adult speaks clearly at all times, uses the correct grammar, and gives appropriate and meaningful language in context. We, as adults, set the model for what good communication looks and sounds like, just like we model other behaviors throughout the day.

What we learned in 1995 from Hart & Risely was the now common statistic of children with typical hearing entering Kindergarten having head 13-45 million words. The range of exposure comes from the amount parents talked to their child. We know that a child who is deaf or hard of hearing will hear fewer words because of their compromised auditory access. One way we can work to increase the number of words a child is exposed to is to model language in the early years of their life.

An adult models language appropriately when they are aware of a child’s language level and purposefully expose the child to language that is just above the child’s current level of functioning. This requires the adult to have knowledge about the language development of children with typical hearing. The language, or skill, that is “just above” the current level is known as the Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD. The idea of ZPD was first introduced by Vygotsky in the mid to late 1920s. Being aware of each child’s ZPD requires the adult to have knowledge about the language development of children with typical hearing.

Moog (2003) has suggested different scenarios when modeling would be useful:

To complete an utterance: the adult identifies words that were missing in an utterance and models the sentence to include the missing words
Child: Ice cream.
Adult: I want ice cream.
Child: I want ice cream.
The adult filled in the blanks to make a more complete sentence and expected the child to repeat back the corrected model.
To correct: the adult models correct syntax, vocabulary or speech
Child: Money live trees forest.
Adult: Monkeys live in the forest. They climb trees.
The adult modeled correct pronunciation of monkeys and clarified the phrase about forest and trees.
To expand: the adult increases the length and complexity of the original utterance
Child: Dog run table.
Adult: Yes, the dog runs under the table at dinner time.
The adult expanded the original utterance to clarify what was happening and modeled correct grammar.

An adult models language that the child will understand and then seeks for a child to imitate and later spontaneously use this language. The adult models the language for the child only until the child is able to produce this language independently.

This strategy helps build the following Listening and Spoken Language Skills:

neural connections in the brain (Suskind & Suskind, 2015)
auditory feedback loop (click the link to learn more)
receptive language skills
expressive language skills
appropriate grammatical rules

Here comes a detour away from the strategy as we know it and I try to begin to tackle the topic of cultural bias as seen in our coaching of parents to use this strategy…if you want to bypass the detour, scroll all the way to the bottom to download the handout.

Everything I just described is based on research, hours of language sampling, and a rich history of implementation in the field. However, I want to consider that the majority of the research on this topic is based on American mainstream patterns of socialization. VanKleeck (1994) emphasized that “setting these kinds of strategies as goals, whether part of a formalized or clinician-constructed program, is based on many assumptions.”

When we target parent-child interaction, we assume that the most common pattern of interaction in the family is between an adult and child.

When we target increasing the child’s verbal output, we assume that the family values children talking a lot.

When we target the child initiating communication, we assume that the family believes children should initiate conversation with adults.

When we target the adult following the child’s lead, we assume that the family values allowed children to direct activities and conversations.

When we target the adult communicating at the child’s level, we assume that the family believes adults should accommodate young children.

When we target adults providing words or phrases they believe the child is intending, we assume that the family believes one can know another’s intentions or that behavior alone is intentional communication.

When we target a conversational style that promotes language development, we assume that the family believes that children learn language best as equal participants in conversation.

We all remember what happens when we ass-u-me, right?!

Cultural trends do not EVER define all members of a culture.

But, we can learn from the trends and then do more investigation through interviews and observation.

For example, I have described above what most research would describe as modeling language. However, here are some other scenarios we may encounter while serving families.

Eisenberg (1982) describes how Mexican American families that she studied would help the child initiate and maintain interactions with another person. The child might sit on the adult’s lap, facing outward, and the adult models a word or phrase to be imitated by the child to the other communication partner. While this might not be our traditional setup in therapy settings, it has great value first of following the family’s cultural interactions, and second for the optimal position the child in the lap is with the adult’s voice close to their hearing equipment microphone. The strategy of modeling is still being used and the desired outcome is still possible.

A different scenario is cultures which are called “high-context” cultures where physical context, nonverbal contextual cues, and observation is highly relied upon. In these cultures, learning is done through observation while an adult demonstrates the task. The learner then is expected to be able to infer and pick up information through incidental learning. Contrastingly, “low-context” cultures we rely on modeling, self talk, parallel talk, open ended questions. American mainstream culture would be considered a low-context culture.

Most definitions of modeling language assume that the interactions where the strategy will be used are between one adult and one child. In many cultures, siblings are the primary caregiver, particularly after the baby starts crawling and walking. Western Samoans, Kikuyu of East Africa, Gusii of Kenya, Hawaiian, Native american, African American, Mexican American and other Hispanic communities are some of the cultures where this trend is seen. A focus on parent interaction skill would likely be of less value in such cultures.

We talk about “family centered” services as being a guiding philosophy but are we thinking about what “family” looks like for everyone? Are we honoring the family’s culture by asking them to participate in this structure? We could better serve by helping families make an informed decisions. Do we describe the pros, cons, and methods of mainstream interventions and programs as well as others that meet their cultural interactions. Do we describe why they would be suitable for their child. Some families might want to participate in a program that does not match their cultural patterns and we should support their decision to do so. When we create programs that fit individual programs, we expand our repertoire of interaction patterns.

If you are a parent or caregiver of a child who is deaf or hard of hearing, how do you feel your services and service providers meet your cultural interaction patterns? Do you feel comfortable speaking up if something is outside your cultural norms? If something is disrespectful? If your choice isn’t honored? How can we, as clinicians or teachers or other service provider, be aware of our cultural biases which can decrease the effectiveness of interventions?

Thank you for sticking with me through that brain-dump and sitting in the discomfort of the topic. If you’d like to dig in more, please leave a comment below or send me a message!

As promised, here is the link to download the handout. Make sure you share with parents/caregivers and professionals.